Choline status of fish can be estimated from the assay of choline content of the dietary ingredients with the absence of deficiency signs. No requirements of fish for vitamin D have been described to date, but little work has been done in this area using highly purified diets and controlled experiments with young growing fish. Some forms of HCS deficiency respond to supplementation with pharmacologic doses of biotin. Life-threatening eosinophilic pleuropericardial effusion related to vitamins B5 and H. Ann Pharmacother. Tourbah A LFC, Edan G, Clanet M, Papeix C, Vukusic S, et al. (PubMed). For example, H4K12bio can be found at the promoter of the gene SLC5A6 that codes for the transporter mediating biotin uptake into cells, the human sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter (hSMVT). Oxidation-reduction reactions may be anaerobic as when pyruvate acts as the hydrogen acceptor and lactate is formed, or the reactions may be coupled to electron transport systems with oxygen as the ultimate hydrogen acceptor; such aerobic reactions occur in respiration. 4th ed. Sealey WM, Teague AM, Stratton SL, Mock DM. Sedel F, Papeix C, Bellanger A, et al. (PubMed), 37. Requirements of fish for vitamin E are shown in Table 3. As physiological antioxidants, these usually protect oxidizable vitamins and labile unsaturated fatty acids. The tocopherols act as extra and intracellular antioxidants to maintain homeostasis of labile metabolites in the cell and tissue plasma. Systematic genome assessment of B-vitamin biosynthesis suggests co-operation among gut microbes. 1.4 Pantothenic Acid Potential mechanisms of biotin depletion by the anticonvulsants, primidone (Mysoline), phenytoin (Dilantin), and carbamazepine (Carbatrol, Tegretol), include inhibition of biotin intestinal absorption and renal reabsorption, as well as increased biotin catabolism (51). Yet, given that the extent to which bacterial synthesis contributes to biotin intake in humans is not known, effects of antimicrobial drugs on biotin nutritional status remain uncertain (51). 2007;333(3):145-153. Thiamine can be easily lost by holding diet ingredients too long in storage or by preparing the diet under slightly alkaline conditions or in the presence of sulphide. Lactoflavin, hepatoflavin, and ovoflavin were also shown to be identical with the pure riboflavin. Brook trout fed large doses of vitamin D showed impaired growth, lethargy, and dark colouration. Thiamine functions in all cells as the coenzyme cocarboxylase, thiamine pyrophosphate, which participates in the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid to acetate for entry into the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Instead, the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) set recommendations for an Adequate Intake (AI; Table 1). Thiaminases have also been found in beans and mustard seed and in several micro-organisms. Said HM, Ortiz A, McCloud E, Dyer D, Moyer MP, Rubin S. Biotin uptake by human colonic epithelial NCM460 cells: a carrier-mediated process shared with pantothenic acid. The relationship of the vitamin A alcohols to naturally occurring b -carotene is as follows: Retinene, the aldehyde form of vitamin A, has been isolated from the retina of dark adapted eyes and is involved in vision in dim light. Niacin is found in most animal and plant tissues. Neurologic symptoms in adults have included depression, lethargy, hallucinations, numbness and tingling of the extremities, ataxia, and seizures. It can be precipitated with heavy metal salts. Biotinidase deficiency is a rare hereditary disorder that impairs biotin absorption and recycling, resulting in secondary biotin deficiency. It is involved in the synthesis of messenger RNA which determines amino acids sequence in polypeptide synthesis. Since the vitamin is fat soluble and accumulates in lipid stores, fish liver oil is a rich source of the material. Fish oils contain vitamin A as free alcohols or esters. Corvallis, Oregon 97331, phone: 541-737-5075 | fax: 541-737-5077 30. 2015;6:148. Vitamin D is essential for maintaining calcium and inorganic phosphate homeostasis. Biotin also shares the hSMVT with α-lipoic acid (56). Biotin functions as a covalently bound cofactor required for the biological activity of the five known mammalian biotin-dependent carboxylases (see below). Obviously, wet or moist diet, preparations containing any fresh fish or shellfish tissue must be used immediately. Int J Dermatol. Therefore, folic acid must also play an important role in resistance to disease. The name vitamin K (for 'koagulation') was proposed by Dam. 2013;8:83. Consequently these are fraught with errors and misconception of true vitamin C status. If dietary biotin intake is not sufficient, a daily multivitamin-mineral supplement will generally provide an intake of at least 30 μg of biotin per day. Biotin supplementation reduces plasma triacylglycerol and VLDL in type 2 diabetic patients and in nondiabetic subjects with hypertriglyceridemia. These rations generally contain considerable carbohydrate material to furnish energy to maintain body temperature. Postmortem rigor mortis occurs very rapidly. Biotin is a monocarboxylic acid slightly soluble in water and alcohol and insoluble in organic solvents. When wound repair experiments were initiated, however, or when fish were exposed to other stress then the requirements doubled or tripled. 307 Linus Pauling Science Center J Am Coll Nutr. Several thiaminases occur which destroy thiamine. Thiamine pyrophosphate is also a coenzyme of the transketolase system by which direct oxidation of glucose occurs in the cytoplasm of cells via the pentose phosphate pathway. The technique is well developed to measure the N1-methyl derivative in mammalian urine. Recycling of one's own biotin bound to carboxylases and histones is also impaired, and urinary loss of biocytin (N-biotinyl-lysine) and biotin is increased (see Figure 1 above) (5). Biotin also appeared to trigger the secretion of insulin in the pancreas of rats and improve glucose homeostasis (38). (PubMed), 54. The flavo-proteins function as enzymes of tissue respiration and are involved in hydrogen transport to catalyze the oxidation of reduced pyridine nucleo-tides (NADH and NADPH). Glandular tissues are good sources of lipoic acid. Too much niacin inhibits growth. The multi-enzyme unit also includes thiamine pyrophosphate, coenzyme A, and flavin adenine dinucleotide. Determination of the biotin content of select foods using accurate and sensitive HPLC/avidin binding. It was first shown to be involved in prevention of sterility and foetal resorption in rats. Overt biotin deficiency likely also causes abnormalities in glucose regulation in humans (see Function). Originally written in 2000 by:  The K vitamins K2 contain 6,7, or 9 isoprene units in the side chain which varies from 30-45 carbon atoms. Retinoic acid, which is the oxidized form of vitamin A alcohol, has been shown to have some vitamin A activity. The concentrations in the liver of young salmon fingerlings in fresh water fed test diets containing an excess of biotin were between 6-8 mg of the vitamin/g of tissue. Often associated with poor outcomes, acute crises were not observed after thiamin supplementation started (300-400 mg/day) and during a five-year follow-up period. Deficiency signs disappear within a day or two. 2006;8(6):636-643. Albarracin CA, Fuqua BC, Evans JL, Goldfine ID. The tocopherols are sensitive to ultraviolet light and are excellent antioxidants in the free form. Non-specific forms of degenerative conditions have been described in several species of fish fed large quantities of polyunsaturated fatty acids with inadequate tocopherol in the ration. In addition, the preliminary results from a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial in 154 subjects with progressive MS indicated that 13 out of 103 patients randomized to receive daily oral biotin (300 mg) for 48 weeks achieved a composite functional endpoint that included a decrease in EDSS scores. One vitamin B12 containing coenzyme acts in methylation of the purine ring during thymine synthesis. An intrinsic factor is necessary for good absorption of the vitamin from the gut. Therefore, actual requirement of vitamin D for maintenance of calcium-phosphorus homeostasis in the young growing animal has not been adequately investigated and the true requirements of vitamin D in young fish have not been defined. Niacin added to the diet as a supplement remains relatively unaltered during diet manufacture, processing, and storage. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press; 1998:374-389. The term "biotinylation" refers to the covalent addition of biotin to any molecules, including apocarboxylases and histones. It is insoluble in most organic solvents. It is not intended as nutritional or medical advice for individual problems. In pond culture, aquatic and terrestrial insects, algae, etc., may also be available and folic acid in the supplementary feed may not be as critical. Vitamins are micronutrients that have physiological effects on various biological responses, including host immunity. Thiamine deficiency has also been reported in marine flatfish started on clam neck diets stored long enough for thiaminase present to hydrolyze the thiamine in the ration. An interrelationship between thiamine and niacin exists since both vitamins are coenzymes in intermediary metabolism whereby food is oxidized to furnish energy for physiological functions, to maintain homeostasis, and for body temperature maintenance in homeotherms. Pyridoxine compounds in phosphorylated form present in agricultural products are fairly stable but are sensitive to ultraviolet radiation. The second water-soluble vitamin discovered was given its specific chemical name riboflavin. It was not until the sixties that a critical need for L-ascorbic acid by trout and salmon was demonstrated. Microbiological assay is preferred for assessment of total folic acid in dietary raw materials because the total biological activity it measures includes all the various coenzyme forms and folic acid analogues. Muscle 'sugar' was discovered by Scherer in 1850 and was characterized as inositol in 1887. Poor growth and poor food passage in inositol-deficient fish was observed in salmon and carp. Another histone, called H1 linker, is located at the outer surface of each nucleosome and serves as an anchor to fix the DNA around the histone core. Raw egg white should not be incorporated into moist fish diets. Some signs of biotin deficiency in salmonids are skin disorders, muscle atrophy, lesions in the colon, loss of appetite, and spastic convulsions. The molecule has a planar group and a nucleotide group lying nearly at right angles to one another. Signs of overt biotin deficiency include hair loss (alopecia) and a scaly red rash around the eyes, nose, mouth, and genital area. (PubMed). Rich sources are yeast, liver, kidney, heart, legumes, and green vegetables. Urinary metabolities of niacin have been measured in other animals on standard niacin load in test rations containing a standard tryptophan load. The possibility of hypervitaminosis A occurs when tuna, shark, or ling cod viscera are used in preparation of moist fish diets. Pharmacologic (very high) doses of α-lipoic acid have been found to decrease the activity of biotin-dependent carboxylases in rats, but such an effect has not been demonstrated in humans (57). It is stable to oxidizing and reducing agents and to autoclaving, but is labile to dry heat, hot alkali, or hot acid. 2010;25(1):32-35. A fat-soluble factor that promoted growth in rats was described by Hopkins and by Osborne and Mendel at the beginning of this century. Ascorbic acid is very stable in acid solution because of the preservation of the lactone ring, but in alkaline solution hydrolysis occurs rapidly and vitamin activity is lost. 1993;14:211-218. Koutsikos D, Agroyannis B, Tzanatos-Exarchou H. Biotin for diabetic peripheral neuropathy. (PubMed), 40. Mock DM, Quirk JG, Mock NI. It is combined with a protein in visual purple and is important in night vision. Salts of the acid are soluble in water. Larrieta E, Vega-Monroy ML, Vital P, et al. Brain, heart, and glandular tissues are very good sources of biologically active inositol. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab. Careful interpretation of haemotological data will enable one to distinguish one form of anaemia from the other. Biotin is a water-soluble vitamin that is generally classified as a B-complex vitamin. When biotin is abundant, HCS can biotinylate histones H4 in the SLC5A6 promoter, which halts hSMVT synthesis and reduces biotin uptake. Niacinamide is a crystalline powder soluble in water and ethanol and the dry material is stable up to about 60°C. The mixed calcium-magnesium salt of the hexophosphate is phytin. It is involved in many enzyme systems for hydroxylation; i.e., hydroxylation of tryptophan, tyrosine, or proline. The 2-carbon fragment called 'active acetate', or acetyl coenzyme A, is an essential intermediate in metabolism. Abnormally elevated concentrations of the amino acid, phenylalanine, in the blood of PKU-affected individuals may inhibit the activity of biotinidase. Dark pigmentation, coupled with striated constrictions of abdominal wall in salmon have been noted. Vitamin A is water insoluble but is soluble in fat and organic solvent. Pyruvate is converted to 'active acetaldehyde' which in turn is picked up by lipoamide. Early diagnostic and immediate treatment with biotin and thiamin led to positive outcomes (25). Fat content of the diet may affect not only caloric intake but also the thiamine requirement because cocarboxylase participates in the oxidation of that through a-ketoglutarate. It is a growth promoting vitamin for micro-organisms which require the vitamin for folic acid synthesis. It acts as a coenzyme in a number of enzyme systems. Most of these studies have been made on very young fish, often initially feeding fry, with the logical assumption that their vitamin needs would be more than that of larger fish having advanced metabolic enzyme systems capable of synthesizing at least some of these vitamins to partially meet the requirements. This irreversible condition will continue in monolateral cataracts throughout the life of the fish, whereas bilateral cataracts largely result in eventual starvation and death of the afflicted animal. A summary of deficiency signs in fish is included in Table 2. Br J Nutr. The interrelationships of cis- and trans-vitamin A in the rhodopsin cycle in mammalian vision are shown below: 2.1.3 The syndrome of deficiency or excess. (PubMed), 42. Several sites of biotinylation have been identified in histones H2A, H3, and H4 (5). Heating to denature the protein makes the bound biotin available again to the fish. ... On the other hand, oxybiotin sulphonic acid inhibits biotin activity. In a freshwater environment, young fish fed test diets in 15 ºC water systems showed liver storage of 3.5-4.0 m g/g. Effect of biotin supplementation on hoof health and ceramide composition in dairy cattle. 1.6.7 Clinical assessment. Another anticoagulant, warfarin, is a common rat poison which has five to ten times the anticoagulant activity of dicumarol. 2008;138(4):680-684. It is also stable to heat in mineral acids and alkali. Phillips observed clubbed gills in trout fed pantothenic acid-deficient diets in 1945. Biotin. Vitamin E prevents encephalomalacia in chicks, erythrocyte haemolysis in several animals and steatitis in mink, pigs, and farm animals. Vitamin K counteracts the dicumarol effect quantitatively. This factor was named 'vitamin E' by Sure. Natural-Medicines. Mock DM, Stadler DD. There are two main types in adults: wet beriberi, and dry beriberi. 1995;27(3):183-191. As a protein builder and by enhancing circulation, follicle stimulation and transport of nutrients to the scalp, it stimulates hair growth, encourages hair … Barbara Delage, Ph.D. Deficiency signs in salmonids include impaired carbohydrate metabolism, nervous disorders, poor appetite, poor growth, and increased sensitivity to shock. Acetylcholine is an antagonist to thiamine and pyrithiamine. The data showed that biotin monotherapy (5-10 mg/kg/day) efficiently abolished the clinical manifestations of the disease, although one-third of the patients suffered from recurrent acute crises. • Propionyl-CoA carboxylase produces D-malonylmalonyl-CoA from propionyl-CoA, a by-product in the β-oxidation of fatty acids with an odd number of carbon atoms (Figure 4a). Assay for the vitamin in blood or plasma has not been found to be useful. D-ascorbic acid, the optical isomer of the active form, has no vitamin activity and competes for sites of several enzyme reactions mediated by L-ascorbic acid. This biologically inactive kitol may be deposited in the whale to avoid hypervitaminosis A during excessive vitamin A intake. Lazo de la Vega-Monroy ML, Larrieta E, German MS, Baez-Saldana A, Fernandez-Mejia C. Effects of biotin supplementation in the diet on insulin secretion, islet gene expression, glucose homeostasis and beta-cell proportion. Galactoflavin is an antagonist to riboflavin and inhibits growth of rats when the diet contains this compound. In homeotherms on a balanced test ration the niacin requirement is generally estimated to be about ten times that of the thiamine requirement. Experimental work to cure scurvy with fruit juice was described by Lind in 1753, but nearly 200 years elapsed before the exact chemical compound responsible for reducing the symptoms was defined. Increased blood clotting time has also been reported for other fish reared on diets with low vitamin K content. When active, a subunit's dissociation activates an enzyme, typically adenylyl cyclase, triggering the formation of a second messenger. speculated that the seborrheic dermatitis associated with low biotinidase activity in these patients would resolve upon compliance with a special low-protein diet but not with biotin supplementation (18). Paper presented at: American Association of Neurological Surgeons (AANS) Annual Scientific Meeting 2015; Washington, D.C. Wheat germ, dried peas, and beans are rich sources. is equal to 0.025 mg of crystalline vitamin D. Absorption maxima in the ultraviolet region can be used to detect provitamins D in the non-saponifiable fraction of oils. Certain cereal brans may have pantothenic acid bound in a form unavailable to fish because of the low digestibility coefficient and should not be relied upon as the sole pantothenic acid source in the diet. (PubMed), 45. The primary role of vitamin K is to maintain a fast normal blood clotting rate which is so important to fish living in a water environment. Pregnancy and lactation alter biomarkers of biotin metabolism in women consuming a controlled diet. The effects of warfarin can also be reversed by administration of vitamin K. Vitamin K status of fish is determined by measuring blood clotting time. Pyridine-3-sulphonic acid and 3-acetylpyridine are compounds structurally related to niacin and are antimetabolites for this vitamin in animals and in micro-organisms. Riboflavin occurs in the free form only in the eye, whey and urine. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. This new factor was designated G by some and 83 by others. Liability for individual actions or omissions based upon the contents of this site is expressly disclaimed. Yet, another small study in 10 patients with type 2 diabetes and 7 nondiabetic controls found no effect of biotin supplementation (15 mg/day) for 28 days on fasting blood glucose concentrations in either group (31). Egg yolk, liver, and yeast are rich sources of biotin. Choline, inositol and ascorbic acid are required in appreciable quantities in the diet and sometimes are not referred to as vitamins but as major dietary nutrients. Good sources of pyridoxine are yeast, whole cereals, egg yolk, liver and glandular tissues. The same symptoms have been observed in trout, salmon, yellowtail, carp, guppies and char. Dietary Reference Intakes: Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Keeping feeds from sunlight or intense artificial light is necessary to minimize loss of the vitamin by conversion to lumiflavin. The material can be synthesized, but is easily isolated from biological material in free or combined forms. Then the fish turned dark and went off feed, followed by the appearance of lesions in the colon, erratic motion, oedema of the stomach and colon and muscle spasms while fish were apparently resting. J Nutr. One of the most important tocopherols is a -tocopherol. Effect of MD1003 (high doses of biotin) in progressive multiple sclerosis: results of a pivotal phase III randomized double blind placebo controlled study. 2011;26(12):1522-1524. It is stable in the dry state and may be autoclaved for short periods without destruction. Vitamin D2 or ergocalciferol, is one of several biologically active forms of vitamin D. Vitamin D3 or activated 7-dehydrocholesterol has the chemical formula C27H44O and contains a more simplified, unsaturated 8-carbon side chain. Revilla-Monsalve C, Zendejas-Ruiz I, Islas-Andrade S, et al. Sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter gene is regulated at the chromatin level by histone biotinylation in human Jurkat lymphoblastoma cells. Therefore, clinical assessment for hypervitaminosis A must rely on crude methods for determination of vitamin D in liver oil samples by the Carr-Price reaction or by measuring absorption in the UV spectrum. Additional niacin can overcome the anti-metabolic effect. (PubMed), 53. J Nutr. In: Erdman JWJ, Macdonald IA, Zeisel SH, eds. Niacin is both a carboxylic acid and an amine and forms quaternary ammonium compounds because of its basic nature. 2.3 Vitamin E The Linus Pauling Institute supports the recommendation made by the Institute of Medicine, which is 30 micrograms (μg) of biotin per day for adults. A trunk-winding symptom in eels has been reported, together with haemorrhage at the base of the fins. Other bound forms of the vitamin can generally be liberated by peptic digestion. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2007:361-383. Summary. Deficiency signs for pantothenic acid are summarized in Table 2. Although vitamin K in ground alfalfa is fairly stable, synthetic material should be protected from exposure to ultraviolet light and to excessive oxidizing or reducing conditions. Biotin recycling impairment in phenylketonuric children with seborrheic dermatitis. It is not an antimetabolite competing for vitamin K sites but plays another role in preventing normal blood clotting. L-ascorbic acid acts as a biological reducing agent in hydrogen transport. (PubMed), 14. Raw egg white contains an antimicrobial protein known as avidin that can bind biotin and prevent its absorption. T wave inversion has been recorded in beriberi … A compromise value of about 200 mg of ascorbic acid/kg diet for trout and salmon raised in freshwater systems between 10-15°C would ensure reasonable tissue storage levels and furnish some excess for mild stress conditions and for ascorbic acid loss from the diet through oxidation. Wheat contains more niacin than corn and the vitamin is also found in milk and egg products. This substance, named vitamin B12 by its discoverers, was later to be recognized as essential for growth of chicken fed diets entirely of plant origin and was designated animal protein factor (APF). When the ribose group in the molecule is replaced by other groups, analogues are formed which either have reduced activity or become antimetabolites. Deficiency signs in fish are generally related to impaired collagen formation. Saggerson D. Malonyl-CoA, a key signaling molecule in mammalian cells. Liver storage measured by microbiological assay showed 5-6 V-g of pyridoxine activity/g in fresh sea salmon liver; whereas, fingerling salmon fed a 50 percent protein diet in freshwater had 2-3 mg/g of wet tissue. Pantothenic acid acetate, benzoate, and diphosphate esters are biologically active for animals but not for lactic acid bacteria. Both NAD and NADP are involved in the synthesis of high energy phosphate bonds which furnish energy for certain steps in glycolysis, in pyruvate metabolism, amino acid and protein metabolism, and in photosynthesis. Although preliminary evidence suggests that supplemental biotin may help strengthen fragile nails, larger placebo-controlled trials are needed to assess the efficacy of high-dose biotin supplementation for the treatment of brittle fingernails. Antagonists may compete for reaction sites of the apoenzyme or may react with pyridoxal phosphate to form inactive compounds. Identification and assessment of markers of biotin status in healthy adults. High intake of vitamin D mobilizes phosphorus and calcium from the bone and tissues and may result in fragile bones, poor growth, and poor appetite related to the nausea described in man afflicted with hyper-vitaminosis D. Arterial and kidney lesions due to excessive intake of vitamin D reported for rats and dogs have not been described histologically for fish nor has hypercalcaemia been described. Table 1 - Water-Soluble Vitamin Test Diet H-440 1/, 2/ Delete two parts a -cellulose and add two parts CMC for preliminary feeding, 4/ Add vitamin B12 in water during final mixing. The term "thiamine" was introduced when the chemical nature of the factor was established. Riboflavin is stable to oxidizing agents in strong mineral acids and in neutral aqueous solution. Animal studies have shown that biotin sufficiency is essential for normal fetal development. (PubMed). The exact requirement of the fish for a -tocopherol may depend upon the amount and type of polyunsaturated fatty acids content of the ration. Rich sources of biotin are liver, kidney, yeast, milk products, and egg yolks. (PubMed), 17. The role of holocarboxylase synthetase in genome stability is mediated partly by epigenomic synergies between methylation and biotinylation events. Biocytin or e -biotinyl lysine (the epsilon amino group of lysine and the carboxyl of biotin being combined in a peptide bond) is hydrolyzed by the enzyme biotinase making the protein-bound biotin available. We depend on reader support to update articles. Pyridoxine is sensitive to ultraviolet light in neutral or alkaline solutions. 9. Elrefai S, Wolf B. Biotin is not known to be toxic. Magnusdottir S, Ravcheev D, de Crecy-Lagard V, Thiele I. The characteristic facial rash, together with unusual facial fat distribution, has been termed the "biotin deficient facies" by some investigators (1). 10. The requirements for salmon are listed in Table 3. Chemical methods for determining menadione content of active metabolite after storage are available but have not been applied to measure vitamin K activity in the liver or tissues of young, growing fish. It is readily oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid, the less biologically potent form. Nerve degeneration has been reported in pigs, chickens, rats, rabbits, and ducks, but only occasionally observed in fish after long periods of deficiency.